Researchers Identified Six Stages of Critical Thinking

While another published a step-by-step textbook to help people improve their critical thinking skills

Hiya!

Thinking is a pretty wild thing to think about if you think about it. If thinking were physical, I’d compare it to water because it takes many forms and densities, and its contents — i.e., our thoughts — determine how nourishing or toxic it is.

Critical thinking, however, is arguably the most challenging of our many thinking styles because it involves continuous self-examination and reflection, which can be uncomfortable. Yet, it is one of our most valuable thought processes. Unfortunately, critical thinking is a declining skill in the United States, so I decided to see what researchers are learning about it.

What is Critical Thinking?

I found a free textbook titled Mastering Thinking by Michael Ireland, a research scientist specializing in research methodology and critical thinking, on the University of Southern Queensland, Australia, website.

Ireland’s textbook, published in August of 2024, provides a fascinating explanation of the human mind and a step-by-step instruction manual for developing critical thinking skills. I’ll discuss some of it later, but first, I want to share how Ireland describes critical thinking in chapter one:

Critical thinking “has specific attributes such as being active, purposeful, careful, evaluative, open, methodical, reasoned, etc. - critical thinking skills are learnable, perfectible, and must be deliberately cultivated and performed (i.e. they’re neither inborn nor automatic).”

In other words, critical thinking helps us form non-biased judgments after we collect and analyze evidence — and like any other skill, it must be learned and maintained.

Unfortunately, the American Family Association stated in July 2024 that,

“Americans, in general, are no longer thinking critically,” and that “Instead of questioning and challenging, we have become complacent in what we are told without any pushback.”

The decline of critical thinking in the United States has been an ongoing problem, and as a result, critical thinking instruction has become one of the most popular research topics in the last quarter-century, or since the year 2000.

For instance, psychologist Linda Elder joined The Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking in 1994, just before the subject became widespread. The same year, she developed the Stage Theory of Critical Thinking Development, which she expanded with psychologist Richard Paul in 1995. (Elder and Paul both became senior fellows of the Center Foundation of Critical Thinking. However, Richard Paul passed away in 2015.)

During their collaboration, Elder and Paul created 23 guides and wrote four books about critical thinking. I can’t possibly include all of their research in this article, but I want to summarize what they view as the six stages of critical thinking.

The Stage Theory

Since critical thinking is a skill, it makes sense that there would be levels or stages a person achieves during their journey of strengthening it — and those steps are precisely what Elder and Paul outlined in Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory.

The researchers identified six broad, predictable levels of critical thinking, from novices who put in little to no effort to advanced mind masters who always seem to be steps ahead. While Elder and Paul label these stages as types of “thinkers,” almost like a personality quiz, I prefer to view them as points on the critical thinking spectrum — between novice and expert.

I’ll share a summary of each stage, followed by some factors Ireland discusses in his textbook that influence how we move through them.